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How to cut your IB Psychology revision time by 50%!

29/2/2016

 
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We show you exactly what you can get away with when revising for your IB Psychology Paper 2 exams – the Options.
In the IB Psychology Paper 2 exam – the Options – there is much that you can leave out and still get maximum marks. The Paper 2 exam requires you to answer two extended response question (ERQs) if you are studying Higher Level IB Psychology, and one ERQ if you are studying Standard Level. Each ERQ is worth 22 marks and you should be targeting full marks in this exam. Paper 2 is the easiest exam in which to maximise your overall IB Psychology exam score. It’s the easiest exam for which to prepare model answers to exam questions and then practice these until you can regurgitate them perfectly and “wow!” your IB Psychology examiners.

Take a look at picture below left (click to enlarge). You will see that there are three questions associated with each option, of which you only need to answer one. You will know by now that each question asked in the IB Psychology examinations is straight out of the learning outcomes listed in the IB Psychology Guide (if not, please see one of most popular blog posts here).

Paper 2 exam questions

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Remember, the IB Psychology LOs listed in the Guide, are your actual exam questions.

Abnormal Learning outcomes

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Now if you have a look above right (click  to enlarge), at the learning outcomes associated with one of the IB Psychology options – Abnormal Psychology, you might think that there is quite a bit of preparation and revision that you need to do. 12 learning outcomes would equate to preparing and memorising 12 model answers, just for this one option, right? Wrong! Let me explain …

Firstly, within each option you have three essay question (ERQ) choices. Secondly, there has never been, nor is there likely to ever be, an IB Psychology exam where all three questions come from within a single subsection such as “Concepts and Diagnosis” or “Psychological Disorders” in the Abnormal option. This means that you can eliminate one ERQ from each of these sections. Thirdly, IB Psychology examiners can’t set an ERQ exam question based on a lower level command terms such as “explain”, “analyse” or “describe”. Very occasionally you will see exam question twisted and contorted to mix a lower level question term and a higher level command term. It hardly ever happens, you have other questions to choose from, so go ahead, cross these LOs off your list too.

Take a look below (again, click to enlarge) at how many Human Relationship LOs you will need to prepare model answers and revise for if you follow this advice. Instead of revising for 13 LOs, you now only need prepare and revise for six! And because you are now only focussing on six ERQ questions, you can prepare perfect 22/22 answers, commit them to memory and regurgitate them as soon as the IB Psychology Paper 2 exam begins. Genius! (At least your IB Psychology examiner will think you are!)

 FRom 13 → 6 Learning Outcomes!

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Remember, wwwPsychologyIB.com has model ERQ answers for the two most popular IB Psychology options – Abnormal and Human Relationships, and we guarantee you will be awarded 22/22 marks if you can replicate them in your exams.
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​Author: Derek Burton - Passionate about IB Psychology

Highlighting Critical Thinking in ERQs 

31/8/2015

 
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Critical thinking is the hardest part to master in answering the IB Psychology extended response questions.
Getting the critical thinking component right in your IB Psychology exams is usually the final piece of the puzzle that needs to fall into place before full marks can be awarded.
Let us show you how it's done ...
The following IB Psychology essay is an exemplar of how critical thinking can be used in an essay for the Paper II IB Psychology examination. It answers the question: Discuss the role of communication in the maintenance of relationships, an ERQ related to the Human Relationships option in the IB Psychology course.

All of the text in dark blue font is an example of critical thinking in IB Psychology (you will need to see the embedded PDF, or download it). The flags and the corresponding comments are clarifications of why this is a good example of critical thinking.

Notice in the IB Psychology ERQ that three pieces of research (studies and/or theories) are used to make the argument - but then there are two paragraphs that take a holistic approach to the question. This is the "discussion" which is what the command term is asking the student to develop in the essay response.


Discuss the role of communication in the maintenance of relationships.

Communication plays a key role in all aspects of human relationships. It plays a role in our attraction to others, the way we solve problems and how much we trust one another. Marriage counsellors often focus on communication as a way to improve a relationship, but often problems in a relationship are complex. Communication may be a symptom, rather than a cause of the end of a relationship.

Research by Bradbury & Fincham found that couples engage in "relationship enhancing strategies" - that is, when a partner attributes good things to the disposition of their partner, and bad things to situational factors. This helps to maintain the relationship because it can enhance the sense of self-esteem of the partner. Couples in crisis tend to use distress-maintaining patterns - that is, they attribute good things to situational factors and bad things to disposition - meaning that the partner is unlikely to change. Although Bradbury & Fincham have documented this trend in relationships, it is difficult to determine if this is a cause or a symptom of the health of a relationship.


Gottman argues that it is not what we say, but how we say it. Our facial expressions communicate how we really feel about our partners. Gottman has couples come into his lab and then he codes their facial expressions under two conditions – discussing a non-threatening topic and discussing a controversial topic. Gottman argues that there are four “horses of the apocalypse” that help to predict if a relationship will end: criticism, defensiveness, contempt and stonewalling. Gottman argues that if a partner shows contempt during a discussion, this is a sign that the relationship is heading for divorce. One of the problems with this research, however, is that when Gottman tells couples that they are expressing these emotions, it may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy. In addition, most of the couples that come to him for help are already in severe crisis. This may mean that the high predictive validity of his research has more to do with the fact that at least one of the partners may have already decided to end the relationship.


A final way that we use communication in relationships is disclosure – or the sharing of personal information with a partner. This is the basis of Social Penetration theory. This builds trust. Research has shown that we like people who disclose personal information. Although this seems logical, it is difficult to determine a cause and effect relationship between disclosure and the health of a relationship. It may be more likely that disclosure is the result of a healthy relationship than the cause of one.


There are many concerns about the study of the role of communication in relationships. First, how does a psychologists “observe” communication in a relationship? Often self-reported measures are used  – such as a questionnaire – to determine what the normal communication patterns are. This is difficult because the actual communications cannot be verified, so it is up to the perception of the person filling out the questionnaire. The information is open to distortion, especially if there is anger between the two partners. It can also be open to distortion if questions are asked about the history of the relationship. The peak-end rule argues that we tend to remember the most recent part of our relationship (the end) and specific events that stand out as rather exceptional (the peak). So, if the relationship is in bad shape, then the partners may only think about recent communication and this may distort their perception of the way that they have communicated throughout the relationship.


Another question is who is actually studied. A lot of the research done on communication is done on couples that are struggling with their relationship. Although some prospective research is now being done, traditionally it has been done with couples in counselling. Research should be done that looks at couples from the beginning of their relationship to truly measure how communication affects relationships long-term. It is also possible that although it is usually done with couples having problems, that the sample is also biased in other ways. A lot of the research is done on Western couples. In addition, the couples seek counselling, which may indicate a certain level of education or socioeconomic status. Finally, there is the problem of bidirectional ambiguity – that is, we cannot tell if the communication style leads to the quality of the relationship, or vice versa. It could be that there is a correlation, but no causation in either direction. Most importantly, the way we communicate is only one facet of a relationship. It is a reductionist approach to assess the health of a relationship only on communication styles.


The study of communication has led to successful strategies in marriage counselling that have helped people save their marriage by becoming more aware of how and what they say. However, labs like Gottman’s may communicate information to a couple – such as, she actually finds him disgusting – that may help to end the relationship. In this sense, the psychologist may validate one or both partners’ perceptions of the state of the relationship and decide to get divorced. Clearly more research is necessary.


IB Psychology ERQ Model answer: 
Discuss the role of communication in the maintenance of relationships.
Model Answer Download
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Take the hard work out of preparing your IB Psychology model ERQs
Author: Derek Burton – Passionate about IB Psychology

Don't Just Stand There, Do Something!

26/3/2014

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A model ERQ answer on bystanderism
A model answer to an IB Psychology Human Relationships extended response question. For sure, the perfect answer to an IB Psychology extended response question is very difficult to write. Luckily for you, we here at IB Psychology specialise in helping teachers teach and students learn how to write these perfect answers.  To this end, we like to provide students and teachers of the course with plenty of exemplars they can be using in the Psychology classroom to demonstrate all of the requirements that a perfect answer needs to fulfill.

We know it's not easy, but on the up side, for each perfect answer you manage to produce, there is every chance that the IB Psychology exam will ask you the exact same question. So, if you produce enough model ERQ answers, practice and memorise them, you will astonish your IB examiners. This is how you get the IB Psychology 7.
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Having a set of IB Psychology model answers will be worth all of the hard work that goes into preparing them.
 In this blog post we bring you the model ERQ answer to the IB Psychology learning outcome: Examine factors influencing bystanderism - in the Human Relationships option.

Examine factors influencing bystanderism

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Bystanderism is the phenomenon of a person or people not intervening despite awareness of another person’s needs; i.e., an individual is less likely to help in an emergency situation when passive bystanders are present. It can cover a range of situations from being aware that a neighbour being physically abusive to his family but ignores it, walking past someone lying slumped on a pavement as the others preceding you have done, or ignoring the plight of a bullied child at school.

The back ground for research on bystanderism was the Kitty Genovese murder in New York City in 1964. She was attacked, raped and stabbed several times over a period of 30 minutes by a psychopath. Later a large number of witnesses that they had heard screaming or seen a man attacking the woman (38 later testified as having heard her screams), yet none of them had intervened or called the police until it was too late. Afterwards they said that they did not want to become involved or thought that someone else would intervene. Researchers here established a cognitive model to explain the decision an individual makes to act or not. One of the key conclusions they drew was that the number of bystanders present has an enormous influence on the likelihood that one of them will help.

This essay will address two theories regarding factors that influence bystanderism: the theory of the unresponsive bystander and the cost-reward model of helping, before examining the role of individual personality characteristics.
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Figure 1: How the diffusion of responsibility model works
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Remember - ALL model ERQs can be found here
Latane & Darley (1970) proposed the theory of the unresponsive bystander. According to the theory the presence of other people or just the perception that other people are witnessing the event will decrease the likelihood that an individual will intervene in an emergency due to such psychological processes like:

  • Diffusion of responsibility: When you are the only person who can deal with an emergency situation, you have 100 per cent of the responsibility to do so (whether you actually choose to intervene or not). However, with more witnesses, each individual’s share of the responsibility drops (see figure 1) and this reduces the psychological costs of not intervening.
  • Social influence: It may be that in an ambiguous social situation, we look to the actions of others for guidance (social influence). This inaction breeds more inaction, in that if we see others not doing anything, we may feel that it is not necessary to do something. If we observe five people walking in front of us pass by a man slumped over on the pavement, then that may go some way to resolving in our own minds as to whether or not he really needs help. 
  • Audience inhibition: On the other hand, we may be afraid of appearing to overreact or of making some kind of social blunder (thus, audience inhibition). So, if individual bystanders are aware that other people are present they may be afraid that any action they take may be evaluated negatively. In terms of Latane & Darley’s model, this forms part of a person’s judgement about whether intervention is necessary or appropriate. Imagine the embarrassment of offering to help someone who does not need help.

Latane & Darley (1968) suggested a cognitive decision model. They argue that helping requires the bystander to:

  1. Notice the situation – if you are in a hurry to get somewhere you may not even be aware of what is going on).
  2. Interpret the situation as an emergency – for example, people screaming or asking for help which could also be interpreted as a family quarrel which is none of your business.
  3. Accept some personal responsibility for helping even though others are present.
  4. Consider how to help – although you may be unsure of what to do or doubt your skills.
  5. Decide how to help – you may observe how other people react and decide not to intervene.

At each of these stages, the bystander can make a decision to help or not.

Latane & Darley (1968) conducted an experiment to investigate bystander intervention and diffusion of responsibility.

Aim: To investigate if the number of witnesses of an emergency influences people’s helping in an emergency situation.

Procedure: As part of course credit, 72 students (59 female and 13 male) participated in the experiment. They were asked to discuss what kind of personal problems new college students could have in an urban area. Each participant sat alone in a booth with a pair of headphones and a microphone. They were told that the discussion took place via an intercom to protect the anonymity of participants. At one point in the experiment a participant (confederate) staged a seizure. The independent variable (IV) of the study was the number of persons (bystanders) that the participant thought listened to the same discussion. The dependent variable (DV) was the time it took for the participant to react from the start of the victim’s fit until the participant contacted the experimenter.

Results and conclusion: The number of bystanders had a major effect on the participant’s reaction. Of the participants in the alone condition, 85% went out and reported the seizure. Only 31% reported the seizure when they believed there were four bystanders. The gender of the bystander did not make a difference.

Ambiguity about a situation and thinking that other people might intervene (i.e., diffusion of responsibility) were factors that influenced bystanderism in this experiment.

During debriefing students answered a questionnaire with various items to describe their reactions to the experiment, for example “I did not know what to do” (18 out of 65 students selected this) or “I did not know exactly what was happening” (26 out of 65) or “I thought it must be some kind of fake” (20 out of 65).

Evaluation: There was participant bias (psychology students participating for course credits). Ecological validity is a concern due to the artificiality of the experimental situation (e.g., the laboratory situation and the fact that bystanders could only hear the victim and the other bystanders could add to the artificiality. Finally, there are ethical considerations in that participants were deceived and exposed to an anxiety-provoking situation.

Another theory about factors affecting bystanderism was developed by Pilliavin et al. (1969). This is the cost reward model of helping, and the theory stipulates that both cognitive (cost-benefit analysis) and emotional factors (unpleasant emotional arousal) determine whether bystanders to an emergency will intervene. The model focuses on egoistic motivation to escape an unpleasant emotional state (opposite of altruistic motivation). Empathy evokes altruistic motivation to reduce another person’s distress whereas personal distress evokes an egoistic motivation to reduce one’s own distress, or recognition that helping will produce a reward (e.g., strong feeling of virtuousness or social approval). The theory was suggested based on a field experiment in New York’s subway.

The subway Samaritan (Pilliavin, 1969)

Aim: The aim of this field experiment was to investigate the effect of various variables on helping behaviour.

Procedure: 
  • Teams of students worked together with a victim, a model helper, and observers. The IV has whether the victim was drunk or ill (carrying a cane), and black or white.
  • The group performed a scenario where the victim appeared drunk or a scenario where the victim appeared ill.
  • Participants were subway travellers who were observed when the ‘victim’ staged a collapse on the floor a short time after the train had left the station. The model helper was instructed to intervene after 70 seconds if no one else did.

Results and conclusion: The results showed that a person who appeared ill was more likely to receive help than one who appeared drunk. In 60% of the trials where the victim received help more than one person offered assistance. The researcher did not find support for diffusion of responsibility. They argue that this could be because the observers could clearly see the victim and decide whether or not there was an emergency situation. Pilliavin et al. found no strong relationship between the number of bystanders and the speed of helping, which is contrary to the theory of the unresponsive bystander.

Evaluation: This study has higher ecological validity than laboratory experiments and it resulted in a theoretical explanation of factors influencing bystanderism. Based on this study the researchers suggested that the cost-reward model of helping involves observation of an emergency situation that leads to an emotional arousal and an interpretation of that arousal (e.g., empathy, disgust, fear) this serves as a motivation to either help of not, based on an evaluation of costs and rewards of helping:

  • Costs of helping (e.g., effort, embarrassment, physical harm)
  • Costs of not helping (e.g., self-blame and blame from others)
  • Rewards of helping (e.g., praise from the victim and self)
  • Rewards of not helping (e.g., being able to continue doing whatever one was doing.

Evaluation of the model: The model assumes that bystanders make a rational cost-benefit analysis rather than acting intuitively and on impulse. It also assumes that people only help for egoistic reasons, which is probably not true. Most of the research on bystanderism is conducted as laboratory or field experiments but findings have been applied to explain real-life situations.

Another key point to consider when examining factors that influence bystanderism that neither the theory of the unresponsive bystander or the cost reward model of helping takes into consideration, is that there is significant individual variance that cannot be wholly attributable to the situation. Dispositional or personality characteristics are important in determining whether someone will help or not in an emergency situation. 

There is evidence that dispositional factors and personal norms are influential in determining the likelihood of bystanderism in an individual. Oliner & Oliner (1988) examined dispositional factors and personal norms in helping in an emergency situation, in this case, the Holocaust. The Holocaust was an exceptional life threatening emergency situation for the European Jews. Witnesses to the deportation of Jews all over Europe reacted in different ways. Some approved of the anti-Semitic policies, many were bystanders and a few risked their own life to save Jews. Within the context of the Second World War, saving Jews was a risky behaviour because it was illegal in many countries and the Jews were socially marginalised (pariahs). Despite this, some people decided to help (act altruistically). Heroic helpers such as those who saved Jews under the Holocaust (e.g., Oscar Schindler of ‘Schindler’s List fame) may have strong personal norms. Those that risk their lives to help others in situations like the Holocaust often deviate radically from the norms of their society.

Oliner & Oliner (1988) examined the role of dispositional factors and personal norms in helping. These researchers interviewed 231 Europeans who had participated in saving Jews in Nazi Europe and 126 other similar people who did not rescue Jews. Of the rescuers, 67% had been asked to help, either by a victim or by someone else. One they had agreed to help they responded positively to subsequent requests.

Results showed that rescuers shared personality characteristics and expressed greater pity or empathy compared to non-rescuers. Rescuers were more likely to be guided by personal norms (high ethical values, belief in equity, and perception of people as equal). Rescuers often said that parental behaviour had made an important contribution to the rescuer’s personal norms. For example, the parents of rescuers had few negative stereotypes of Jews compared to non-rescuers. The family of rescuers also tended to believe in the universal similarity of all people.

Other factors such as similarity, victim attributes, responsibility, mood, competence and experience can also influence the degree of bystandersim in any person or emergency situation. These factors are not considered in the two models examined here, but have been shown to of some importance.

General conclusion

Both the theory of the unresponsive bystander and the cost-reward model of helping are cognitive models of decision making where individuals weigh up several factors regarding the emergency situation, consciously or unconsciously, before making their decision to help or not. Both of these models have good predictive power as to how people will behave in real life emergency situations; however each does have its own limitations. Neither of these models takes into account the influence of personality factors, which may be of considerable influence in bystanderism.

Word count: 2 000

Author: Derek Burton – Passionate about IB Psychology

Model IB Psychology  ERQ Answer

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Sweaty Opposites

18/3/2014

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Your sweat reveals the sweet smells of attraction!
IB Psychology asks interesting questions about the biological origins of attraction in the Human Relationships option; for example: To what extent do biological, cognitive and sociocultural factors influence human relationships?

Way back in the days before I even knew IB Psychology existed I was at university studying Psychology when a friend of mine became interested in the recently published Wedekind et al. study (AKA – The Sweaty T-Shirt Experiment). With a little help from some friends studying microbiology we were able to get some genetic testing done and reproduce an experiment that everyone was talking about. I was to become the guinea pig.

Beauty may not be so much as in the eye of the beholder, but in the nose. Both men and women want to make healthy babies, and that means babies with a robust immune system that fights off disease. Each of us passes on some of our ability to fight disease to our children in our genes and our instincts prime us to choose a mate with an immune system very different to our own. Why? Because that way our children get the best chance of fighting illness. When it comes to these genes opposites attract.

We tried putting these instincts to the test in our university laboratory. Six women and I needed to have our blood tested for 6 genes to reveal what type of immune system we had. If all 6 of my genes match all 6 of a woman’s, that’s bad. I should find her smell unappealing because our children are likely to be less healthy. But if only one or two genes match, that’s good. I should find her smell attractive because it would mean our children would be naturally healthier.

I was to sniff t-shirts worn by each of the 6 women. Each woman had slept in a t-shirt over two nights so it should have been really smelly. The t-shirts were put in a sealed bag and kept in the freezer.  We 'scientists' then placed the t-shirts in a jar and next we got sniffy.

On the day, and in the lab I was told that what I was about to be given the t-shirts the 6 women had been wearing. I’m finding it very difficult to believe that this is going to work but I’ll definitely going to try it. Each jar is unsealed in turn and I’m to sniff the t-shirt in it, by taking deep inhalations from the t-shirt jars simply labeled A-F. I start with Jar A and take a deep sniff. I find it to be not nearly as bad as I had expected it to be. Jar B I don’t like quite so much so I place it further down the line than Jar A. I keep going with the jars. Some are definitely smellier than others. Some are not bad. At the end I have 6 jars lined up with the most attractive smells being on the left. Now we want to know if they’re the most genetically different. 

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A reenactment of the sweaty t-shirt study 

The biological origins of attraction
My scientist friend pulls off the A-F labels revealing each t-shirts’ score out of 6. The higher the score, the greater the number of different immune system genes the woman who was wearing that t-shirt has. According to the science behind this, my jars should be ordered with my most attractive smells having the highest numbers and the least attractive smells having the lowest numbers.

What do we find? From left to right, my most attractive to least attractive, the numbers were: 4/6, 5/6, 4/6, 1/6, 0/6, 0/6. I was skeptical to begin with, but this was an almost perfect match to the experimental hypothesis. It was exactly what the science predicted. My top three t-shirts had the stale whiff of different immune system markers and in my least attractive t-shirts I could somehow recognise the reek of my own immune system genes. It appears that opposites really do attract.

Download and read the study below. You can use it in the IB Psychology learning outcome: Evaluate psychological research (that is, theories and/or studies) relevant to the study of human relationships.

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The infamous sweaty t-shirt study
Wedekind (1995) PDF download
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Her sweat will provide clues to her immune system that we can smell

Author: Derek Burton - Passionate about IB Psychology

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Short. Sharp. Sweet.

5/3/2014

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Psychological science tells us what we already know.
From the treasure trove of Psychological studies, we here at IB Psychology delve into our basket of goodies to bring you a lot of stuff you no doubt already know:
  • We judge naked people as having less self-control.
  • Pain is felt intensely when it's intentionally inflicted.
  • Relationships are more exciting when they're secret.
  • Trying too hard at something can make us rubbish at it.
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Tell me something I don't already know

Pervy
This may make you think differently about those photos you've been posting to Facebook. 

Seeing someone without their clothes my not cause us to objectify them, but we certainly start to think differently about them. Participants were shown pictures of the same target individuals who were either shown wearing clothes, topless or, ahem, wearing just a smile.

Unsurprisingly, naked individuals were perceived as having less control over themselves and also as having more access to 'experience'. When pictured clothed, the same individuals were rated as being more 'capable' and 'competent'. 

Ecological validity? Probably pretty good. If I was walking through my university and just happened perchance (no way was I hiding up the tree!) to see a drunken, naked frat run. That is exactly what I would be thinking - not very competent but much more open to experience.
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Shirt on: More competent and capable.
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Shirt off: Having less control.

Secret spice
We all love a secret. Secrets can be endlessly obsessed over. Those with whom we share secrets seem more exciting and we feel that we have a much closer bond. Secretly playing footsie under a table at an experimenter's behest makes us rate our experimental partner as being much more attractive, than when this footsie was carried out openly.
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The best IB Psychology IA experiment to replicate, ever?

Performance anxiety
Have you ever been involved in close golf game with a friend where maybe a $20 is on the line? It's the 18th hole, scores are tied and you've both reached the green on the same number of shots. This putt is important. You line up your shot thinking hard about angles and how much power to put into your shot. The $20 is there in your thoughts. The shot you now play is going to be the worst you've made all day. You choke. 

A few conditions in this experiment. Participants were explicitly told not to over hit the golf ball. In some instances while putting they were instructed to remember a six-figure number. And all putts took place in a darkened room where the putter either glowed in dark or didn't. A glow in the dark putter enabled participants to see it in their hands and actively self monitor their shots. 

Being told not to overshoot the hole led to way more holes being overshot. Keeping a six figure number in your head makes it worse. Being able to monitor your shot made it worse again. The moral of the story. Relax and enjoy your golf.
Relax and enjoy your golf to reduce your 20 handicap

This will hurt me more than it hurts you
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Psychological and physical pain are intertwined. Some of that psychological pain can have a social component. When we believe others are intentionally harming us. It hurts more.

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